Executive Summary: “Dominion” in Genesis 1:28 means neither lordship nor despotism nor even stewardship, but servanthood. ירדו (yirdu), the ancient biblical Hebrew word in consonantal form for "dominion" in the verse concerned, refers to either רָדָה (radah) (to tread down, subjugate, rule) or יָרַד (yarad) (to lower oneself, to descend) (cf. Chaim and Laura 2015). IMO, “dominion” can only mean the latter, because, firstly, it is in the spirit of the Jesus Christ who said that He has come to serve, NOT to be served (Mark 10:45) {Rev. Prof. Andrew Linzey (1995:45, 57) even contends that the human species has the unique potential to become the “servant species” able to work with God in liberating animals}; secondly, the instruction is immediately followed by a vegan diet prescribed by God to humans (Genesis 1:29), as pointed out by Linzey (1995:34); thirdly, in Genesis 2:15, as noted by Richard Ritenbaugh (1999), humans are particularly assigned to tend (עָבַד/abad) and keep (שָׁמַר/shamar) the garden—i.e., to be a caretaker of it. To interpret "dominion" as "servanthood" is not only more accurate but also more secure than as "stewardship" in Linzey’s terms (1995:34) and "caretakership", because"servanthood" involves least power and authority. Mind you: Power tends to corrupt (Lord Acton 1887).
Full Text Link: https://www.hkbnews.net/post/dominion-in-genesis-1-28-means-servanthood-to-animals-go-vegan-by-dr-chapman-chen
A lot of flesh-greedy individuals, including Christians and those of other or no faiths, have interpreted the term "dominion" from Genesis 1:28 as a rationale for the subjugation, exploitation, mistreatment, torture, rape and massacre of innocent creatures of God. Now let's examine this verse itself:-
Then God blessed them, and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply; fill the earth and subdue it; have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the air, and over every living thing that moves on the earth.” (Genesis 1:28 NKJV)
1. "Dominion" could Mean Either to Tread Down or to Come Down
The original Hebrew word in the ancient biblical consonantal form for "dominion" in Genesis 1:28 is yirdu (ירדו). As pointed out by Chaim and Laura (2015), seven hundred years after the birth of Christ, the Masoretes put a chireq (one dot) under the Resh (ר) making this the root word radah (רִדָּה) (Masoretic Hebrew) which, according to Strong's Exhaustive Concordance, means to tread down, subjugate, rule, prevail against (Note 1). Had they put a tsere (two dots) under the Resh, they would have come up with the root word yarad (יָרַד) (Masoretic Hebrew) (Chaim & Laura 2015), which, according to Brown-Driver-Briggs, means to come down, descend (Note 2).
The vowel points (nikkud) is representative of the Masoretic text. The Masoretes, who were Jewish scholars active between the 6th and 10th centuries AD, added these vowel pointings to the consonantal text of the Hebrew Bible to determine pronunciation and meaning. This system of vocalization is a feature of the Masoretic text and is not found in the ancient biblical Hebrew manuscripts. Modern Hebrew, especially in formal and religious contexts, often follows the Masoretic vocalization. In Hebrew, vowels play a crucial role in conveying the meaning and pronunciation of words. The Masoretic text added vowel pointings to the ancient consonantal text to standardize pronunciation and meaning. Without these vowel pointings, the same set of consonants can lead to different pronunciations and meanings, depending on the context and grammatical structure.
2. The Context of Genesis 1:28
Before determining the exact meaning of yirdu (ירדו), let's look at the context of the verse in question.
2.1. Genesis 1:29 -- A Vegan Diet
Immediately following the verse containing the word "dominion", God prescribed humanity a vegan diet:-
And God said, “See, I have given you every herb that yields seed which is on the face of all the earth, and every tree whose fruit yields seed; to you it shall be for food. (Genesis 1:29 NKJV)
2.2. “Dominion” as Stewardshp
Oxford University Theology Professor Rev. Andrew Linzey (2016) asserts that animals, as creatures created by God, exist primarily for God (Colossians I: 16), and have intrinsic value. Indeed, Andrew Linzey argues that the context of "dominion" in terms of Genesis 1:29 and Genesis 2:15 precludes any right to kill animals for food:-
Dominion has frequently been interpreted as despotism... Judged from its context, God shares his or her moral rule with humans so that they can look after and care for the creation which is made (cf. e.g. Gen. 2.15)... this divinely given commission to look after the earth eschews any right to kill for food. The dominion granted is such that subsequent upon its bestowal, God commands a vegetarian diet. (Gen. 1.29f) (Linzey: 1995:34)
"Dominion understood in this sense means not despotism but responsibility or ‘stewardship,’" Linzey (2016) concludes.
2.2. “Dominion” as Caretakership
In Genesis 2:15, God commissioned humans to take care of the Garden of Eden, based on which Rittenbaugh interprets “dominion” in Gen. 1:28 as caretakership:-
Then the Lord God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to tend and keep it. (Genesis 2:15 NKJV)
According to Strong's Concordance, עָבַד (abad), the Hebrew word for "tend", means to serve or to work (Note 3); שָׁמַר (shamar); the Hebrew word for "keep", means to keep, watch, preserve (Note 4) and as noted by Rittenbaugh (1999), שָׁמַר (shamar) means "to exercise great care over".
2.3. God's Covenant with Animals
Moreover, in Genesis 9:8-17, God again and again stressed that he made his covenant with not only humans but also other animals, which means that the animals are to be esteemed and cared for!
According to Andrew Linzey (1995:34), the covenant in Genesis 9 is a reminder of God's assurance never to exterminate "all living creatures" again (Gen. 9:8-17 NIV). The covenant's main focus extends beyond humans to include "every living creature that was with you," explicitly mentioning "the birds, the domestic animals and every animal of the earth with you, as many as came out of the ark." To emphasize its importance, this detail is reiterated five times (Gen. 9:10, 12, 15, 16, 17). Similarly, Halteman (2007) points out that "Noah’s rescue mission demonstrates God’s care for the animals and clearly demonstrates that God’s covenant extends to all living things."
8 Then God said to Noah and to his sons with him, 9 “As for me, I am establishing my covenant with you and your descendants after you, 10 and with every living creature that is with you, the birds, the domestic animals, and every animal of the earth with you, as many as came out of the ark. 11 I establish my covenant with you, that never again shall all flesh be cut off by the waters of a flood, and never again shall there be a flood to destroy the earth.” 12 God said, “This is the sign of the covenant that I make between me and you and every living creature that is with you, for all future generations: 13 I have set my bow in the clouds, and it shall be a sign of the covenant between me and the earth. 14 When I bring clouds over the earth and the bow is seen in the clouds, 15 I will remember my covenant that is between me and you and every living creature of all flesh; and the waters shall never again become a flood to destroy all flesh. 16 When the bow is in the clouds, I will see it and remember the everlasting covenant between God and every living creature of all flesh that is on the earth.” 17 God said to Noah, “This is the sign of the covenant that I have established between me and all flesh that is on the earth.” (Gen 9:8-17 NRSV)
3. Jesus Came to Serve, NOT to be Served!
Judging from the context provided above, "dominion" in Genesis 1:28 should imply yarad (to come down or lower oneself) more than radah (to tread down). This is confirmed by Jesus' saying that "the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve" (Mark 10:45 NIV). That is to say, in all probability, Jesus would interpret "dominion" in Gen. 1:28 as servanthood instead of tyranny.
Talking about servanthood, Andrew Linzey (1995:45-61) contends that humans should not consider themselves as the master species with dominion over animals, but rather as servants to them. This perspective is rooted in the Christian understanding of stewardship and the example of Christ as a humble servant. Linzey suggests that this servant role calls for love, care, and non-harm towards all creatures, reflecting a moral and ethical duty to protect and serve the animal kingdom.
Thus, "have dominion over animals" indicates that God orders the human species to lower themselves and wait upon other animals as a servant (cf. Chen 2021b, 2021c). From a Christly perspective, "dominion" is more "servanthood" than stewardship and caretakership.
4. Christian Priests who Equate "Dominion" with Lordship
Unfortunately, many Christian priests over the last 2000 years, e.g. St. Aquinas, Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Billy Graham, under the disingenuous influence of Paul the anti-vegan apostate, have anthropocentrically misinterpreted "dominion" as dictatorship/lordship so that the majority of Christians enslave, exploit, rape (as in the diary industry), murder and eat animals "without questions of conscience" (I Corinthians 10:25).
4.1. Aquinas on Dominion and Natural Order
In Question 96 of his Summa Theologica, Thomas Aquinas (1920) suggests that the dominion over animals given to humans by God is in keeping with the natural order where less perfect beings serve more perfect beings such that humans are entitled to use animals for their needs, such as food and hunting:-
It is written (Gen. 1:26): "Let him have dominion over the fishes of the sea, and the birds of the air, and the beasts of the earth" [Vulg."and the whole earth"]...I answer that... Now all animals are naturally subject to man...from the order observed by nature...man makes use of both plants and animals... the hunting of wild animals is just and natural, because man thereby exercises a natural right... the order of Divine Providence...always governs inferior things by the superior... as man, being made to the image of God, is above other animals...the subjection of other animals to man is proved to be natural.
4.2. Martin Luther Thinks Humans Have Absolute Power over Animals
While he confesses on at least one occasion that every animal has a God-given soul, Luther interprets "dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth” (Genesis 1:28 KJV) as domination and despotism, claiming that humans are far superior to all other animals (cf. Clough 2009:45-46).
Luther seeks to affirm the superior characteristics of humans compared with other sentient being. For him this was particularly obvious before the fall:-
I am fully convinced that before Adam’s sin his eyes were so sharp and clear that they surpassed those of the lynx and eagle. He was stronger than the lions and the bears, whose strength is very great; and he handled them the way we handle puppies. (LW 1.62)
Had there been no fall Adam and his folk would have assembled to praise and extol God "for the dominion over all the creatures on the earth which had been given to mankind" (LW 1.105).
Even in the post-fall state Luther suggests that "there is still a great difference between the human being and the rest of the animals" (LW 1.67). And according to Luther's commentary on Genesis 7, "even though the greater part of the world perishes [due to the Deluge], man nevertheless remains lord of the creatures" albeit over fewer creatures than there were previously (LW 2.100).
And when he comes to dwell on Genesis 9:2 "the fear of you shall be upon every beast," Luther argues that human dominion has been enhanced and metamorphosed compared with that gifted to Adam: "until now the animals did not have to die in order to provide food for man, but man was a gentle master of the beasts rather than their slayer or consumer" but now "the animals are subjected to man as to a tyrant who has absolute power over life and death" (LW 2.132).
4.3. John Calvin Deems Man Lord of the World!
In his commentary on Genesis 1:28, Calvin seizes upon the word "dominion" and anthropocentrically claims that God "appointed man, it is true, lord of the world; but he expressly subjects the animals to him...And hence we infer what was the end for which all things were created; namely, that none of the conveniences and necessaries of life might be wanting to men" (note 5). In his commentaries on Genesis 9:1-29, Calvin unabashedly argues that eating animal flesh is not only consistent with Pauline teaching regarding liberty in meals, but is also likely a post-Ark restoration of accepted practice before the Flood (note 6). In fact, humans may take food from the animal kingdom as if from a "storehouse" (note 7) for the entire universe “was established especially for the sake of mankind” (note 8).
4.4. Billy Graham Believes Animals are for Man's Enjoyment and Use!
In reply to the question, "Will there will be animals in heaven?", Billy Graham stated,
Man, as the highest order of creation, has been given dominion over the animal kingdom (Genesis 1:26-28). We believe that animals were intended for man’s enjoyment and use. The Bible itself does not indicate that there is life after death for animals. It may be that God’s purpose for animals is fulfilled on this earth. However, if animals would make us happier in heaven, surely there will be a place for them there. (Graham 2004)
Apparently, this world-famous Christian evangelist had no respect whatsoever for God's creatures.
5. The First Corrupter of the Doctrines of Jesus the Vegan Christ
Most mainstream church leaders like those quoted immediately above follow Paul the anti-vegan apostate rather than Jesus the Vegan Christ (cf. Chen 2024c, 2023b, 2022c, 2020).
According to US President Thomas Jefferson, St. Paul was the "first corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus" (Washington 1854). As pointed out by Albert Schweitzer (1910) in The Quest for the Historical Jesus, Paul perverted the discourse of Jesus and "displace[d]" it. As argued by Keith Akers (2020), Paul violated Jesus' vegan principle and the Jerusalem Council's vegan decree; as admitted by Paul himself, he was a relative of the Herodian family (Romans 16:11) and his real name was Saul (Acts 7:58, 8;1-3); as interpreted by Robert Eisenman (2012), Paul was the liar described in the Dead Sea Scrolls; according to Thijs Voskuilen (2005), Paul was a Roman spy sent to subvert Jesus' church from inside; as pointed out by Robert Mt. Sion (2013), Paul was the AntiChrist. Paul corrupted Jesus' vegan church and Pauline Christianity has hijacked the Vegan Christ for two thousand years (cf. Chen 2023).
6. Paul Insists that Flesh-eating is OK
After Jesus' martyrdom for animal liberation (cf. Chen 2024a, 2024b, 2024d, 2023b, 2022c), Paul told believers that we may eat any meat sold in the market without "questions of conscience" (I Corinthians 10:25), but because the vegan Jerusalem Council led by Jesus' natural brother James the Just was still in power in the church, Paul diplomatically advised believers not to cause brethen to stumble because of meat-eating (Romans 14:21). In Romans 14:1-2, Paul disparages those Christians who "eat only vegetables" claiming that their "faith is weak." Apparently veganism was widespread among Christians in Paul's day, so much so that he had to contest their assertion that abstaining from meat was an act of piety (Kamran Pasha 2009). The fact that Paul has to make this point means that ethical veganism was being presented as a moral requirement to be a Christian! After the Fall of Jerusalem in 70 AD, which witnessed the martyrdom of most followers of vegan Christianity, Paul's flesh-eating gentile Christian camp rose from the periphery to the centre of Christianity (cf. Akers 2020:173-185; Dixon 2018).
Worst still, in the year 325 A.D., the Council of Nicaea was commissioned to create a new religion acceptable to Emperor Constantine, who, at the time, was busily engaged in the bloody persecution of early vegan Christians. To accomplish this aim, certain "correctors" were appointed, whose task it was to rewrite the Gospels, removing most passages that pertained to veganism and animal rights. The Church Fathers had an additional reason to do this - for they themselves had no desire to make such a radical change in their own living habits (Bernard 1964). Ever since then, Jesus' own vegan Christianity has become heresy till now.
7. Conclusion
To put it in a nutshell, ירדו yirdu, the consonantal ancient pre-Masoretic Hebrew word for "dominion" in Genesis 1:28, could denote either to רָדָה (radah; tread upon) or יָרַד (yarad; to lower oneself) in Masoretic Hebrew. Given its context, including Genesis 1:29 (a vegan diet), Genesis 2:15 (great care for the garden) and Genesis 9:8-17 (God's covenant with all animals), Jesus the Vegan Christ Himself, who came to serve rather than to be served, would interpret "dominion" as servanthood rather than despotism/dictatorship/lordship over God's creatures.
To interpret "dominion" as "servanthood" is not only more accurate but also safer than as "stewardship" and "caretakership" for "servanthood" involves least power and authority. Mind you: “Absolute power corrupts absolutely” (Lord Acton 1887). Many humans tend to abuse whatever power they think they have over others. The way in which mainstream theologians such as Thomas Aquinas, Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Billy Graham have interpreted the term 'dominion' to support their anthropocentric and carnist agendas over the past two millennia serves as a notable example.
Ecologically speaking, over 3 trillion animals are killed either directly or indirectly by humans on an annual basis (note 9). Further, the IUCN Red List has identified agriculture as a threat to the survival of a significant portion of the species assessed. Given that over 45,000 species are listed as threatened or endangered on the 2024 IUCN Red List (note 9), and considering agriculture is one of the top threats to biodiversity, it's reasonable to infer that several thousand animal species are impacted by agriculture in general. Thus, in all probability, most animals, except for domesticated pets like dogs and cats, would prefer humans to simply leave them alone rather than to be their steward or caretaker.
It is high time real followers of Jesus dumped Paul the anti-vegan apostate's stance, adopted the Christly, animal-friendly interpretation of "dominion", and went vegan!
Notes
9. According to Viva!, the total number of land animals killed for food in a year around the world exceeds 78 billion. According to David Clough’s (2020) calculations for On Animals II, 2.5 to 6.8 trillion fish are killed for food every year.
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